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SECTIONS
Introduction -
Natural Sources -
Synthetic Sources -
Uses -
Astaxanthin in the Food Chain -
History -
Dietary Notes -
Regulations -
Trivia
Astaxanthin (as-tuh-zan'-thin) is a carotenoid (kuh-rah'-tuh-noydz). It belongs to a larger class of phytochemicals known as terpenes. It is classified as xanthophylls (zan'-thuh-filz), which means 'yellow leaves'. Like many carotenoids, it is a colorful, fat/oil-soluble pigment. Astaxanthin can be found in microalgae, yeast, salmon, trout, crayfish, crustaceans and the feathers of some birds. [1][2] Professor Basil Weedon was the first to map the structures of astaxanthin.[2a]
Astaxanthin, unlike some carotenoids, does not convert to Vitamin A (Retinol) in the human body. Too much Vitamin A, for a human, is toxic, but astaxanthin is not. However, it is a powerful antioxident. It is 10 time more capable than other carotenoids.[3]
While astaxanthin is a natural nutritional component, it can be found as a food supplement. The supplement is intended for human, animal and aquaculture consumption. The commercial production of astaxanthin comes from both natural and synthetic sources.
Natural Sources
| Astaxanthin natural sources | Astaxanthin concentration(ppm) |
Salmonids Plankton Krill Arctic shrimp Phaffia Yeast Haematococcus pluvialis |
~ 5 ~ 60 ~ 120 ~ 1200 ~ 8000 ~40,000 |
Currently, the primary natural source for astaxanthin is haematococcus pluvialis[6]. It seems to accumulate the highest levels of astaxanthin in nature[4a]; commercially more than 40 g of astaxanthin per kilo of dry biomass.[4] It has the advantage of the population doubling every week, which means scaling up is not an issue; simply open another plant. However, it does require some expertise amoung the personel and that might be it's downfall.
For Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (yeast), interestingly enough it has similar advantages, but it requires refrigeration (6 degree Celsius = 42.8 degree Fahrenheit) once harvested. It also has the problem of of being low in nutrient value, unlike krill or shrimp. Since it is not ocean-based, it has the issue of not carrying those traits of ocean organisms, like microalge. It's chief advantage is price. It will certainly be available for the cost conscious consumers.
For Euphausia superba (krill), this report from [http://www.aquafeed.com/article.php?id=365 aquafeed.com] points to some of the issues:
The Krill fishing operation is complex. It is done in Antarctic waters, under extreme weather conditions and far away from ports with substantial operational complexities. Krill?s fishing location and the difficult weather conditions in the main fishing area, together with the costs involved in the operation, have contributed to a slow development of the industry. Krill fishing is by far different to any other fishing operation today known. The knowledge to work with it belongs to very few people in the world.
Nonetheless as the article points out, producers still venture out. They include the Japanese, the Polish, the Russians and Ukrainians. Lastly, krill will always have envirnmental issues, but being lower on the food chain allows it to reproduce more and faster than larger ocean creatures -- at least we hope.
Pandalus Borealis (Shrimp shells) you might recognize as "shrimp meat" from the grocery store, or in a shrimp cocktail, or shrimp salad. Nutritious, tasty and in danger of overfishing.[17] Nonetheless, it's just the shell that are used. So that, along with the head - general included as fish meal, this source has it's limitations.
Synthetic Sources
synthetic astaxanthin made from petroleum
Uses
It is used as a feed supplement for salmon, crabs, shrimp, chickens and egg production[4b]. Regardless of the source, astaxanthin provides some important benefits beyond coloration. It also has been found to be essential for their proper growth and survival.[4]
The primary use of synthetic astaxanthin today is as an animal feed additive to impart coloration, this includes farm-raised salmon and egg yolks.[4] In that, synthetic carotenoid (i.e., coloured yellow, red or orange) pigments represent about 15-25% of the cost of production of commercial salmon feed.[4c] Today, essentially all commercial astaxanthin for aquaculture is produced synthetically from petrochemical sources, with an annual turnover of over $200 million, and a selling price of ~$2000 per kilo of pure astaxanthin. [4]
Currently, the primary use for humans is a a food supplement. Research shows that due to astaxanthin's potent antioxidant activity, it may be beneficial in cardiovascular, immune, anti-inflammatory, and neurodegenerative diseases.[9] Research supports the assumption that it protects body tissues from oxidative damage.[5][7] It also crosses the blood-brain barrier, which makes it available to the eye, brain and central nervous system to alleviate oxidative stress that contributes to ocular, and neurodegenerative diseases such as glaucoma and Alzheimer's.[8]
Astaxanthin in the Food Chain
:/s research-Bird-Plumage/pdf.html|Is synthetic astaxanthin causing gulls to be "flushed" pink? /;
Organic Certification allows the use of microalge, yeast or shrimp shells.[13] However, it is likely krill meal will be added to that list. It's exclusion is mostly likely production, logistic and/or managerial issues. [10]
Regulations
Title 21: Sec. 73.185 Haematococcus algae meal
FDA Note 1.
The color additives Astaxanthin, Ultramarine blue, Canthaxanthin, Synthetic iron oxide, Dried algae meal, Tagetes (Aztec marigold) meal and extract, and Corn endosperm oil are approved for specific uses in animal foods (see 21 CFR 73.35,73.50, 73.75, 73.200, 73.275, 73.295, 73.315, respectively). Haematococcus algae meal (21 CFR 73.185) and Phaffia yeast (21 CFR 73.355) for use in fish feed to color salmoids were added in 7/6/2000.
[pdf] FOOD ADDITIVE STATUS LIST 2005
FDA ledger on applications for New Dietary Ingredients in Dietary Supplements 1999-2001
Fuji Patents
http://www.fujihealthscience.com/astaxanthin.html
Astaxanthin has 100-500 times the antioxidant capacity of Vitamin E and 10 times the antioxidant capacity of beta-carotene. Many laboratory studies also indicate astaxanthin is a stronger antioxidant than lutein, lycopene and tocotrienols.[8]
Only two (2) companies world-wide synthesize Astaxanthin.[16]
Synthetic astaxanthin fetches $2000 a kilogram on the market, while the natural product is sold for over $7000 a kilo.[18]
Salmon [[roes]] contain astaxanthin that gives them their reddish color and protects them from ultraviolet.
Its is believed that alge will expose it's astaxanthin when the sun hits it to protect itself.
Flamingos can't make use of astaxanthin so it goes to their feathers.
Astaxanthin (as-tuh-zan'-thin) is a carotenoid (kuh-rah'-tuh-noydz). It belongs to a larger class of phytochemicals known as terpenes. It is classified as xanthophylls (zan'-thuh-filz), which means 'yellow leaves'. Like many carotenoids, it is a colorful, fat/oil-soluble pigment. Astaxanthin can be found in microalgae, yeast, salmon, trout, crayfish, crustaceans and the feathers of some birds. [1][2] Professor Basil Weedon was the first to map the structures of astaxanthin.[2a]
Astaxanthin, unlike some carotenoids, does not convert to Vitamin A (Retinol) in the human body. Too much Vitamin A, for a human, is toxic, but astaxanthin is not. However, it is a powerful antioxident. It is 10 time more capable than other carotenoids.[3]
While astaxanthin is a natural nutritional component, it can be found as a food supplement. The supplement is intended for human, animal and aquaculture consumption. The commercial production of astaxanthin comes from both natural and synthetic sources.
Natural Sources
| Astaxanthin natural sources | Astaxanthin concentration(ppm) |
Salmonids Plankton Krill Arctic shrimp Phaffia Yeast Haematococcus pluvialis |
~ 5 ~ 60 ~ 120 ~ 1200 ~ 8000 ~40,000 |
Currently, the primary natural source for astaxanthin is haematococcus pluvialis[6]. It seems to accumulate the highest levels of astaxanthin in nature[4a]; commercially more than 40 g of astaxanthin per kilo of dry biomass.[4] It has the advantage of the population doubling every week, which means scaling up is not an issue; simply open another plant. However, it does require some expertise amoung the personel and that might be it's downfall.
For Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (yeast), interestingly enough it has similar advantages, but it requires refrigeration (6 degree Celsius = 42.8 degree Fahrenheit) once harvested. It also has the problem of of being low in nutrient value, unlike krill or shrimp. Since it is not ocean-based, it has the issue of not carrying those traits of ocean organisms, like microalge. It's chief advantage is price. It will certainly be available for the cost conscious consumers.
For Euphausia superba (krill), this report from [http://www.aquafeed.com/article.php?id=365 aquafeed.com] points to some of the issues:
The Krill fishing operation is complex. It is done in Antarctic waters, under extreme weather conditions and far away from ports with substantial operational complexities. Krill?s fishing location and the difficult weather conditions in the main fishing area, together with the costs involved in the operation, have contributed to a slow development of the industry. Krill fishing is by far different to any other fishing operation today known. The knowledge to work with it belongs to very few people in the world.
Nonetheless as the article points out, producers still venture out. They include the Japanese, the Polish, the Russians and Ukrainians. Lastly, krill will always have envirnmental issues, but being lower on the food chain allows it to reproduce more and faster than larger ocean creatures -- at least we hope.
Pandalus Borealis (Shrimp shells) you might recognize as "shrimp meat" from the grocery store, or in a shrimp cocktail, or shrimp salad. Nutritious, tasty and in danger of overfishing.[17] Nonetheless, it's just the shell that are used. So that, along with the head - general included as fish meal, this source has it's limitations.
Synthetic Sources
synthetic astaxanthin made from petroleum
Uses
It is used as a feed supplement for salmon, crabs, shrimp, chickens and egg production[4b]. Regardless of the source, astaxanthin provides some important benefits beyond coloration. It also has been found to be essential for their proper growth and survival.[4]
The primary use of synthetic astaxanthin today is as an animal feed additive to impart coloration, this includes farm-raised salmon and egg yolks.[4] In that, synthetic carotenoid (i.e., coloured yellow, red or orange) pigments represent about 15-25% of the cost of production of commercial salmon feed.[4c] Today, essentially all commercial astaxanthin for aquaculture is produced synthetically from petrochemical sources, with an annual turnover of over $200 million, and a selling price of ~$2000 per kilo of pure astaxanthin. [4]
Currently, the primary use for humans is a a food supplement. Research shows that due to astaxanthin's potent antioxidant activity, it may be beneficial in cardiovascular, immune, anti-inflammatory, and neurodegenerative diseases.[9] Research supports the assumption that it protects body tissues from oxidative damage.[5][7] It also crosses the blood-brain barrier, which makes it available to the eye, brain and central nervous system to alleviate oxidative stress that contributes to ocular, and neurodegenerative diseases such as glaucoma and Alzheimer's.[8]
Astaxanthin in the Food Chain
:/s research-Bird-Plumage/pdf.html|Is synthetic astaxanthin causing gulls to be "flushed" pink? /;
Organic Certification allows the use of microalge, yeast or shrimp shells.[13] However, it is likely krill meal will be added to that list. It's exclusion is mostly likely production, logistic and/or managerial issues. [10]
Regulations
Title 21: Sec. 73.185 Haematococcus algae meal
FDA Note 1.
The color additives Astaxanthin, Ultramarine blue, Canthaxanthin, Synthetic iron oxide, Dried algae meal, Tagetes (Aztec marigold) meal and extract, and Corn endosperm oil are approved for specific uses in animal foods (see 21 CFR 73.35,73.50, 73.75, 73.200, 73.275, 73.295, 73.315, respectively). Haematococcus algae meal (21 CFR 73.185) and Phaffia yeast (21 CFR 73.355) for use in fish feed to color salmoids were added in 7/6/2000.
[pdf] FOOD ADDITIVE STATUS LIST 2005
FDA ledger on applications for New Dietary Ingredients in Dietary Supplements 1999-2001
Fuji Patents
http://www.fujihealthscience.com/astaxanthin.html
Astaxanthin has 100-500 times the antioxidant capacity of Vitamin E and 10 times the antioxidant capacity of beta-carotene. Many laboratory studies also indicate astaxanthin is a stronger antioxidant than lutein, lycopene and tocotrienols.[8]
Only two (2) companies world-wide synthesize Astaxanthin.[16]
Synthetic astaxanthin fetches $2000 a kilogram on the market, while the natural product is sold for over $7000 a kilo.[18]
Salmon [[roes]] contain astaxanthin that gives them their reddish color and protects them from ultraviolet.
Its is believed that alge will expose it's astaxanthin when the sun hits it to protect itself.
Flamingos can't make use of astaxanthin so it goes to their feathers.
Note: astaxanthin.org, astafactor.com, aquasearch.com and MeraPharma.com (Mera Pharmaceuticals Inc.) are related.
- Haematococcus pluvialis
- Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous
- Euphausia superba
- Pandalus borealis
